EARLIEST REFERENCES
It is not definitely known when Jews first settled down in Hungary. The earliest traces date back to the 2nd-3rd century AD. This is the time when the river Duna (Danube) and the western part of the country were controlled by the Roman Empire. The territory’s name was Province Pannonia, where, together with the Roman military contingent, some Jewish soldiers and commercials appeared too. Although gravestones and other kind of memories were found from this period, there is nothing to indicate that they settled down here permanently. A historical document from 960, written by Hászdáj ibn Sáprut, a Jewish statesman of Cordoba, first mentions not only wandering merchants, but settled Jews all over the country.
It is not definitely known when Jews first settled down in Hungary. The earliest traces date back to the 2nd-3rd century AD. This is the time when the river Duna (Danube) and the western part of the country were controlled by the Roman Empire. The territory’s name was Province Pannonia, where, together with the Roman military contingent, some Jewish soldiers and commercials appeared too. Although gravestones and other kind of memories were found from this period, there is nothing to indicate that they settled down here permanently. A historical document from 960, written by Hászdáj ibn Sáprut, a Jewish statesman of Cordoba, first mentions not only wandering merchants, but settled Jews all over the country.
MEDIEVAL HUNGARY
The undisturbed life in Hungary lasted just for a couple of years. When in other Christian countries restrictions were promulgated, St. Ladislaus (1077-1095) prohibited mixed marriages between Jews and Christians, and work on Sundays too. The next years brought further restrictions against the employment of Christians by Jews, and Jews were only allowed to settle down in towns with Episcopal sees. As the Christians were not allowed to deal with money and trade, Jews were soon after given permissions to live in cities, and they started to play an important role in the country’s economy. There were Jewish Chamberlains, mint-, salt-, and tax-officials.
The undisturbed life in Hungary lasted just for a couple of years. When in other Christian countries restrictions were promulgated, St. Ladislaus (1077-1095) prohibited mixed marriages between Jews and Christians, and work on Sundays too. The next years brought further restrictions against the employment of Christians by Jews, and Jews were only allowed to settle down in towns with Episcopal sees. As the Christians were not allowed to deal with money and trade, Jews were soon after given permissions to live in cities, and they started to play an important role in the country’s economy. There were Jewish Chamberlains, mint-, salt-, and tax-officials.
Andrew II (1205-1235) with his Golden Bull (1222) and Oath from Bereg (1233) and on the Papal and Hungarian nobilities claim, deprived the Jews of these high offices, forbade mixed marriages and according to the IV. Lateran Councils resolution he ordered Jews to wear a special dress to enable them to be distinguished from Christians.
Andrew II’s son and descendant was Bela IV. In 1241 the Mongolian invasion started, so Béla withdrew his father’s provisions, and appointed Jews to hold the castle at Komárom. Jews were charged with minting as well. In 1251 he issued his famous Jewish Privilege Letter, which granted rights to liberty and freedom of worship, all these under the King’s protection. They became renowned for being the treasurers and chamberlains. These rights were respected and confirmed by Bela’s successors as well.
After the devastating Mongolian attack the Royal Court was moved by Bela from Esztergom to the western part of the river Duna (to Buda), and with this the golden age of the new fortified city began. This is the period when the Old Jewish quarter was built in Buda, with a synagogue, very close to the former mint. This area is mentioned in the Képes Krónika as the Platea Judeorum os Juden Gasse. The Shabat Gate (Porta Sabbati) was locked with a chain on Saturdays. The old Jewish cemetery was outside the fortifications, presently in Krisztinaváros, where the oldest Jewish gravestones were found with Hebrew writings, dating back to 1278. There were other Jewish communities in the country with synagogues - like in Sopron, Kõszeg, Esztergom, Székesfehérvár and so on.
After the Hungarian dynasty died out (1301), foreign kings took over the power. They wanted to Christianize the Jews and this period was full of suffering and persecution. At the time of the Black Death (1349) they were expelled from the country. Soon after, they were again allowed to return, but Louis the Great of Anjou forced them to leave the country for a longer period again. When he allowed them to return, he placed the Jews under his protection, similarly to his predecessors.
Sigismund of Luxemburg restricted their rights but allowed them to settle down beside royal towns and some manors. The situation improved under the rule of King Matthias Corvinus (1458-1490) who confirmed the privileges given by Béla. He created the office of Jewish prefect in Hungary whose leader was Mendel Jakab. His task was to act on behalf of the Hungarian Jews, and was nominated to collect the taxes. Although the situation improved, there were some Papal restrictions that had to be respected: the synagogues’ main entrances were not allowed to be on the main streets, and the buildings were not allowed to be nicer or bigger than the buildings around them. In 1461, a new synagogue was erected on a Mendel’s lot. (Táncsics Mihály u. 23). It is today 4 meters below the ground. In 1964 excavation works started but soon after was stopped, and they covered the ground again. Although partially buried, the architectural remnants are still visible in the Buda castle area.
Following the death of King Matthias, persecution of Jews flared up again. Under the reign of Ladislaus II (1490-1516) a period of unrest ensued, Jewish property was confiscated; for the first time Jews were burned at the stake and based on blood libel suits executed at Nagyszombat. After a shorter time the Hungarian Jews finally applied to the German Emperor Maximilian for protection, who finally took the Hungarian Jews under his protection. But it didn’t last for long and the persecution continued.
DURING THE WAR WITH THE OTTOMANS
The Turks gained victory at the Battle of Mohács (1526), where not just the Hungarian army was destroyed, but the king was killed as well. When the news arrived to the capital, the court and the upper class fled the country. Jews, who had remained in the city, handed Sultan Suleiman the city’s keys, begging for grace. On September 22, the Sultan decreed to collect the Jews from Buda and Esztergom, and to distribute them among the cities of the Turkish Empire. Hungary was divided into three parts. Jews were not welcomed in the free royal towns, considered as enemies, persecutions were going on, with different accusations they were expelled from cities, and their properties were taken.
The Turks gained victory at the Battle of Mohács (1526), where not just the Hungarian army was destroyed, but the king was killed as well. When the news arrived to the capital, the court and the upper class fled the country. Jews, who had remained in the city, handed Sultan Suleiman the city’s keys, begging for grace. On September 22, the Sultan decreed to collect the Jews from Buda and Esztergom, and to distribute them among the cities of the Turkish Empire. Hungary was divided into three parts. Jews were not welcomed in the free royal towns, considered as enemies, persecutions were going on, with different accusations they were expelled from cities, and their properties were taken.
In 1541 Sultan Suleiman again took Buda with a ruse, and this year marks the beginning of the Turkish rule in Hungary. This period that lasted till the end of the 17th century, was peaceful for the Jews who lived on the territories ruled by the Turks. Jews slowly drifted back to the occupied areas. They were treated as a self-contained community with a wide-ranging autonomy. The community’s leader was the kethüda, who had to follow the Turkish administrative rules. The inner administration was controlled by the Rabbi who was called papasz or hákhám. Arsan papas and David papas were the most famous Rabbis of these times. There was no restriction on trade or craft. They controlled the ferries, and they were in charge of the customs and the taxes. Buda had one of the most flourishing communities in Europe at the beginning of the 17th century with famous scholars, Rabbis, Kabbalist and writers. Three synagogues operated, the Old one (Táncsics Mihály u. 26), the New one (Táncsics Mihály u. 23) and one down in Tabán (Buda side).
In other parts of the country, the situation was not that good, on June 1, 1582 the municipal council decreed that no one should harbor Jews, or transact business with them. Jews were double taxed, forbid to take charge of the customs, they were excluded from the privileges of the country. They were slandered to be unbelievers, and had no conscience.
When Buda was recaptured, the community of Buda suffered much, as did also other communities in the country. The ones who didn’t live with the Turks were either slain or imprisoned and sold into slavery. Leopold I. (1657-1705) expelled the Jews, but soon after he revoked his decree. The whole country fell under Habsburg rule, and the next decades were very difficult. The new laws didn’t allow Jews to settle in town, so they participated mostly in the management of the nobility’s estates and the trading activities of the small villages.
XVIII. CENTURY
Maria Teresa (1740-1780) expelled the Jews from Buda and the ‘Toleration Tax’ was imposed. Expelled from Buda they settled down in Old Buda, where they were allowed, after paying the taxes, to build synagogues, ritual baths, schools, and to trade. But their shops had to be closed on Christian holidays.
Maria Teresa (1740-1780) expelled the Jews from Buda and the ‘Toleration Tax’ was imposed. Expelled from Buda they settled down in Old Buda, where they were allowed, after paying the taxes, to build synagogues, ritual baths, schools, and to trade. But their shops had to be closed on Christian holidays.
Joseph II (1780-1790) son and successor of Maria Theresa wanted to change the social status of Jews. In consequence, in 1783, the Hungarian government issued a decree known as the ‘Systematica Gentis Judaicae Regulatio’ which wiped out the former restrictions. Jews were again allowed to settle in royal towns. The documents were no longer allowed to be in Hebrew or in Yiddish, but in Latin, German and Hungarian. The Hebrew language was to be used at worships only. Schools had to be reorganized; the subjects were to be the same as the ones in the national schools. Jews were able to establish a business only if they could prove that they had attended school. They could enter the academies, and might study any subject. On the other hand, they were obligate to shave their beards, and to take up German family names and henceforth to perform military service. This decree ensured civilian rights, harbored significant advantages and disadvantages at the same time for the Jewish population.
REFORM ERA - ENLIGHTENMENT
The 19th century and the Reform Era brought big changes not just for the country but for the Hungarian Jewry as well. Besides numerous constructive innovations, the enlightened aristocracy aimed to accept the emancipation of Hungarian Jewry. During this period, the Hungarian language became the official language instead of the former Latin. This decision was not accepted by the other nationalities. The General Assembly of the county of Pest decided that if Jews would be willing to adopt the ‘Magyar’ language, they should be given equal rights with other Hungarian citizens. From that moment much attention was paid to the teaching of Hungarian in the schools. In 1840 Bloch Móric published his bilingual bible (Hebrew-Hungarian), Rabbies published bilingual prayer-books, and the Hungarian language started to be used in the synagogues as well. Jews became important in the country’s economic life. In 1840 it was declared that Jews might settle freely anywhere within the country (except in mining towns), establish factories and do business.
During the 19th century Hungary was a multiethnic country, with many nationalities. There were other problems as well, but the Habsburg Emperor and the chancellor Metternich refused to implement reforms, this resolution led to disturbance in the whole country. In 1848 a revolution broke out, which grew into a war of independence from the Habsburg rule. Vienna skillfully manipulated the Croatian, Serbian and Romanian peasantry, with privileges they induced them to rebel against the Hungarian government. The Hungarians were supported by the Slovak, German and Russian nationalities and by all the Jews of the Kingdom. Jews served their country not only with weapons, but also with financial funds. They contributed silver and gold, clothes and fed the soldiers. Army chaplains – Rabbies like Löw Lipót, Schwab Arszlán, Eichorn Ignác tried to inspire the soldiers. Some 20,000 Jews fought with the Hungarians for its independence. Yet the general opinion was that the Jews should not receive equal civic rights until they had reformed their religion. In 1849, Szeged city’s national assembly issued finally a bill that granted Jews full citizenship. The bill also included the clause referring to marriages between Jews and Christians. This bill was warmly welcomed by the Reform Jewish party.
This liberty lasted only for two weeks. The Hungarian army capitulated at Vilagos to the Russians, they handed the army and the country over to the Austrians. Haynau the leader of the Austrian army (who then became governor of Hungary for a few months) punished the Jews with heavy war-taxes for participated in the uprising.
COMPROMISE AND THE DUAL MONARCHY
After the revolution, the emperor revoked Hungary’s constitution and assumed absolute control. German and Bohemian administrators managed the government, and German became the official language of administration and of higher education. The Hungarian public opinion split over the country’s relations with Austria. Some held out hope for full separation from Austria, others wanted a compromise with the Habsburgs. In 1859, in the Austro-Sardinian War, Austria was defeated by the Sardinian and French forces. Austria declined in strength and in power, and Franz Joseph recognized the necessity of concessions toward Hungary. In 1866, the Prussians defeated the Austrians, further underscoring the weakness of the Habsburg Empire. To shore up support for the Monarchy, the Emperor started negotiations with the Hungarian nobility to ensure their support. These efforts led to the Compromise of 1867, when Franz Joseph was crowned with the Hungarian holly crown and the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungaria, or Austro-Hungarian Empire was created.
This was a very important moment for the country and for the Hungarian Jews as well. The Austro-Hungarian economy changed dramatically during the existence of the Dual Monarchy. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. Following the Compromise, the law on emancipation was declared in 1867 about the integration of the Jews, regarding their civilian and political rights. In 1868, a Hungarian Jewish Congress was held. Instead of one Jewish community, three organizations were created: a reform (so called ‘Neolog’), a conservative (Orthodox), and a middle wing (the ‘Statusquo’). The new version of Judaism, called Reform or Neolog, developed alongside emancipation during the 19th century. It rejected the aspects of traditional Judaism seen as incompatible with the modern political and cultural situation. It has quickly become the major affiliation of Jews in Hungary. Their temple was built in the Dohány Street in 1859. The central Statusquo got its temple in the Rumbach Street in 1872, its architect was the Viennese Otto Wagner. The Orthodox building was finished later, only in 1913, in the Kazinczy Street.
In 1873, the united Budapest (from three cities Buda, Pest and Óbuda) as capital was created. With the emancipation, Jews started to gain prominence in many areas of cultural endeavor. The number of Jews at universities and working in professional fields rose, they became successful businessmen. Factories, mines were created; banks and insurance companies were opened.
In 1873, a school was opened for boys. The Rabbinical Seminary and a secondary school (gymnasium) were established in 1877. A Jewish hospital and other welfare institutions were founded.
In 1895 the Hungarian parliament declared the Jewish religion equal with other religous denominations. In the same year they allowed civil marriage between Jews and Christians. Strong integration started, Jews started to consider themselves to be Hungarian. A significant intellectual and business class developed, which started to play an important role in the city’s economic life. This century have given some outstanding personalities; like Baumhorn Lipót (1860-1932), Lajta Béla (1873-1920), Theodor Herzl (1860-1904), Petschauer Attila (1904-1943) and the others.
WORLD WAR I. AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
In contrast to the impressiv economic development, political problems appeared. Besides the German – Magyar, Czech – Magyar conflicts about the future of the dual monarchy, ethnic problems escalated. The strong national feelings alienated the non-Hungarian population. As a reaction, the already significant Romanian, Serbian and Slovak nationalism further escalated. On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb shot and killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary demanded action by Serbia to punish the responsible. When they deemed that Serbia did not fulfill the expectations, they declared war. Hungary was fighting on the Austrian side. As the country was involved into the war, Jews were fighting together with the Hungarians. More than 10,000 Jews died and thousands were wounded and disabled fighting for their country.
In 1918, as a result of defeat, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed and Hungary was in ruins. The new government, with the liberal Count Mihály Károlyi as a leader, declared Hungary as an independent Republic. In 1919 they lost their support and the Communist Party of Hungary came to power, led by Béla Kun. The regime collapsed after a few months, and the reactionary forces under Miklós Horthy established a new government. Hungary lost a very big territory, economic problems grew and anti-Semitism appeared, probably this led to the series of pogroms, known as the White Terror in 1919.
In 1920, Hungary signed the so-called Trianon Treaty, with which the country lost over two-thirds of its territory (71%), and 13 million of its inhabitants. In 1920, Horthy appointed Count Pál Teleki as Prime Minister. The Terror ended in the country, but this right-wing government passed a number of anti-Jewish measures, the Numerus Clausus was proclaimed, which limited the number of Jewish students at universities. Due to the Numerus Clausus, Jewish students attended universities abroad and stayed on. With this step Hungary’s intellectual loss was even bigger, famous future worldwide-known scientist, artist, left the country. Just to mention some: Ede Teller, János Neumann, Marcell Breuer, and so on. Jews were marked as „political insecure elements”.
HUNGARY DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR
Between 1929 and 1933, during the economic depression worldwide, Hungary’s economy collapsed, resulting unemployment and the decrease of living standards. The government’s most important goal was revision. The government swung more and more to the right in those years, and the country established close relations with the Fascist Italy and the Nazi Germany. Since it didn’t want a military conflict, it tried to get the desired territories through diplomacy. With the first and the second Vienna Awards, Hungary got back certain territories. To appease their allies, the ‘Jewish question’ was back up to the level of politics. Hungary issued a couple of Anti-Jewish laws.
The first Anti-Jewish Law, in 1938, restricted the number of Jews in liberal professions, administration, and commerce to 20%. This was extended with the second Anti-Jewish Law issued in 1939; which limited the employment in professional fields for 6%. This was the first law which was based on race.
In 1940 Hungary signed the Tripartite Pact, which allied Germany, Italy, and Japan. In 1941 Hitler put pressure on Yugoslavia to join the Pact. This move was unpopular amongst the Serbian public and military, and they dethroned the Prince. Hitler decided to attack Yugoslavia and asked military help from Hungary for this invasion, and promised some taken territories in return. With this step Hungary joined the war alongside Germany.
Though it belonged to the Axis, the Hungarian government refused to allow the deportation of Hungarian Jews. The excluding measures were controlled, but the Jews lived a relatively more secure life in Hungary, than in other European countries. From countries occupied by the Germans thousands fled to Hungary. In 1941, the ones who couldn’t prove their Hungarian citizenship were rounded up by the National Office and exiled to Galicia and Ukraine. Most of the transfers were executed by the German Security Police at Kamianets-Podolskyi. In the same year the Hungarian troops made a mass massacre at Novi Sad. Bardossy passed the third Anti-Jewish Law in 1941, which brought the complete exclusion. It prohibited intermarriage, social and personal contact between Jews and non-Jews, and it eliminated the Jews from economic positions.
On June 22, 1941, Hitler started his Russian invasion. Hitler did not ask for Hungarian assistance, but when Kosice was bombed, the Hungarian government considered it as a Russian provocation. The Hungarian units joined Germany and suffered terrible losses. Since 1941, Jews were drafted to labor service in Hungary. This type of military based force labor was unique for the country. Thousands were killed this way in Russia (in the Don-band) and in Serbia (Bor-copper mines). But the government continually resisted German pressure and refused to start the deportation.
Meanwhile, the Hungarian government started negotiations with British and American forces. Fearing that Hungary might conclude a separate peace on March 19, 1944, German troops marched in and occupied Hungary. Adolf Eichmann and a special group with the Wehrmacht arrived to Budapest to oversee and prepare the Final Solution of the Jewish question. The decree to wear the yellow star was issued on April 5, soon after the ghettoization. Deportation started in the provinces. In less than 8 weeks, between May and July the German and the Hungarian authorities deported more than 430.000 Jews mostly to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where at the end, one third of the murdered victims were Hungarian.
When the ‘Auschwitz Report’ disclosed the situation in the death camps, international protest began. Due to the interventions and to the success of the D-Day Horthy ceased the deportation. Though they lived in a very difficult situation, the Budapest community was the only in the country to remain.
In September 1944, Soviet forces crossed the Hungarian border. In October Horthy announced that Hungary would capitulate. The Germans forced Horthy to abrogate his armistice and named Ferenc Szálasi (the leader of the Arrow Cross Party) as Prime Minister. Hungary continued the war as a committed ally of Germany. With Szálasi, the fate of Jews in capital turned tragic. Groups of Jews were forced to walk 200-220 km to Hegyeshalom border for „imperial work”. On December 10, the Budapest Ghetto was established, 70,000 people were gathered in 4,000 apartments. From time to time there were massacres at the Danube river, the terror started.
Among these inhuman conditions, the rescue efforts fulfilled extremely important tasks. In intention to save as many Jews as possible legal and illegal methods were used by some rescuers. The ones of overriding importance: Raul Wallenberg - the secretary of the Swedish embassy, Carl Lutz - Swiss consul, Giorgio Perlasca – an Italian, who posed as a Spanish agent, Angelo Rotta – Papal nuncio, Gábor Sztehlo – Lutheran priest and so on.
The Red Army completed the encirclement of Budapest on December 29, 1944, and the battle of Budapest started. The Ghetto was liberated on January 18, 1945. The siege of Budapest ended on February 13, 1945. The Soviet operations ended on April 4, 1945, when the last German troops were expelled.
Although thousands of Jews escaped the horrors of deportation, (just some 200,000 Jews managed to survive the Holocaust) 600,000 Hungarian Jews were killed. The one who managed to survive moved to the capital, or emigrated to Israel or to other countries (Canada, USA, Australia, etc).
COMMUNIST RULE
After the WWII, Hungary again lost all the territories that were gained between 1938 and 1941. The country was in ruins and rebuilding started rapidly. The multi-party system was over when the communist party, with Rákosi Mátyás took the power over, and a new one-party system was created. He imposed an authoritarian rule on Hungary. A new constitution was passed, which was modeled after the constitution of the Soviet Union. A new coat-of-arms was adopted with Communist symbols. The new government declared thousands as political enemies who were tortured, executed or imprisoned. Rákosi expanded the education system with communist ideology, and religious classes were eliminated. Per pure Communist doctrine, which was strictly atheistic.
On October 23, 1956, a peaceful student demonstration grew into the Hungarian Uprising. Thousands were killed, and 100,000 decided to emigrate amongst them some 20,000 Jews. With Soviet intervention the formal system was restored. The new government was created by János Kádár. A milder, so-called ‘goulash’ communist regime was carried out. The next two decades responded to pressures for minor political and economic reforms. In the 1980s it had achieved some economic reforms, limited political liberalization and encouraged more trade with the West. In 1988, the pressure for change was increasing, different parties were formed. The parliament adopted legislation providing multiparty parliamentary elections. The regime has changed in 1989, and the most important political act was that the new Hungarian Republic was proclaimed in Budapest on October 23, 1989. The first free parliamentary elections were held in May 1990.
TODAY
Since 1990, there were big political, economical and cultural changes in Hungary. With foreign and Hungarian invested capital renovations started and the communist clouds slowly fade away. In 2004 Hungary became member of the EU too and the country has become more democratic than ever before.
WWII and the years after it were characterized with silence. The attendance in religious institutions was very small. In many cases, Jewish children didn’t learn of their Jewish affiliation, survivors haven’t talked openly about the psychological sufferings they had experienced. Since 1989, all these have changed rapidly. Over the past decades several new institutions were established. Religious, educational, cultural and social changes occurred, that enriched the Jewish life in Budapest and in the provinces too.
Most of the estimates about the number of Jews in Hungary range from 80,000 to 100,000, with very high intermarriage rates. Though Hungary has the biggest Jewish community in Eastern Europe we can’t say that everybody lives a religious life, some even do not attend the synagogues even on the High Holidays. The new institutions have added potential for educating Jews and directing them back toward Jewish traditions. A kind of renewal, renaissance started in the 7th district, in the old-new Jewish neighborhood.
‘Jewishness’ in Hungary has many different aspects. The mainstream Judaism in the country is the ‘Neolog’ one. This wing was able to reorganize its structure and istitutions. The Neolog’s center is the newly renovated Dohány Street Synagogue.
A few dozen families belong to the Orthodox community. Before WWII, this wing was dominant in the provinces, but these communities were mostly deported and killed. Now the community has much less members, their center is the Kazinczy Street Synagogue.
Over the past decades a new orthodox wing was created, by the Chabad Lubavitch movement. They have a fruitful, dynamic and visible presence in the capital.
The Rumbach Synagogue was built for the middle wing, for the ‘Status Quo Ante’-type. This building is still not renovated, so the small community prays in other buildings.
Like in other countries Budapest has a reform movement too, the group has a woman rabbi (Kata Kelemen) and some 30-40 members.
Budapest has more than 20 synagogues or prayer rooms in use in Budapest, and app. about the same number in the province. There are some buildings which managed to survive WWII, but were not renovated or are used for something else.
The Rabbinical Seminary, which was opened in 1877 still functions and is the only one in Eastern and Central Europe of its type. Zionist organizations were created; three Jewish secondary and high schools are in function. In 1992 a Jewish College ‘Pedagogium’ was established. There are kosher shops, wig stores, kosher restaurants, butchers, hospitals, cultural centers.
Unfortunately, Anti-Semitism as well as racism towards the Roma population has been a problem in Hungary in the recent years. Luckily, violence against individuals are rare, this hatred is usually exhibited by destroying tombstones or vandalizing some community buildings.
The 19th century and the Reform Era brought big changes not just for the country but for the Hungarian Jewry as well. Besides numerous constructive innovations, the enlightened aristocracy aimed to accept the emancipation of Hungarian Jewry. During this period, the Hungarian language became the official language instead of the former Latin. This decision was not accepted by the other nationalities. The General Assembly of the county of Pest decided that if Jews would be willing to adopt the ‘Magyar’ language, they should be given equal rights with other Hungarian citizens. From that moment much attention was paid to the teaching of Hungarian in the schools. In 1840 Bloch Móric published his bilingual bible (Hebrew-Hungarian), Rabbies published bilingual prayer-books, and the Hungarian language started to be used in the synagogues as well. Jews became important in the country’s economic life. In 1840 it was declared that Jews might settle freely anywhere within the country (except in mining towns), establish factories and do business.
During the 19th century Hungary was a multiethnic country, with many nationalities. There were other problems as well, but the Habsburg Emperor and the chancellor Metternich refused to implement reforms, this resolution led to disturbance in the whole country. In 1848 a revolution broke out, which grew into a war of independence from the Habsburg rule. Vienna skillfully manipulated the Croatian, Serbian and Romanian peasantry, with privileges they induced them to rebel against the Hungarian government. The Hungarians were supported by the Slovak, German and Russian nationalities and by all the Jews of the Kingdom. Jews served their country not only with weapons, but also with financial funds. They contributed silver and gold, clothes and fed the soldiers. Army chaplains – Rabbies like Löw Lipót, Schwab Arszlán, Eichorn Ignác tried to inspire the soldiers. Some 20,000 Jews fought with the Hungarians for its independence. Yet the general opinion was that the Jews should not receive equal civic rights until they had reformed their religion. In 1849, Szeged city’s national assembly issued finally a bill that granted Jews full citizenship. The bill also included the clause referring to marriages between Jews and Christians. This bill was warmly welcomed by the Reform Jewish party.
This liberty lasted only for two weeks. The Hungarian army capitulated at Vilagos to the Russians, they handed the army and the country over to the Austrians. Haynau the leader of the Austrian army (who then became governor of Hungary for a few months) punished the Jews with heavy war-taxes for participated in the uprising.
COMPROMISE AND THE DUAL MONARCHY
After the revolution, the emperor revoked Hungary’s constitution and assumed absolute control. German and Bohemian administrators managed the government, and German became the official language of administration and of higher education. The Hungarian public opinion split over the country’s relations with Austria. Some held out hope for full separation from Austria, others wanted a compromise with the Habsburgs. In 1859, in the Austro-Sardinian War, Austria was defeated by the Sardinian and French forces. Austria declined in strength and in power, and Franz Joseph recognized the necessity of concessions toward Hungary. In 1866, the Prussians defeated the Austrians, further underscoring the weakness of the Habsburg Empire. To shore up support for the Monarchy, the Emperor started negotiations with the Hungarian nobility to ensure their support. These efforts led to the Compromise of 1867, when Franz Joseph was crowned with the Hungarian holly crown and the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungaria, or Austro-Hungarian Empire was created.
This was a very important moment for the country and for the Hungarian Jews as well. The Austro-Hungarian economy changed dramatically during the existence of the Dual Monarchy. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. Following the Compromise, the law on emancipation was declared in 1867 about the integration of the Jews, regarding their civilian and political rights. In 1868, a Hungarian Jewish Congress was held. Instead of one Jewish community, three organizations were created: a reform (so called ‘Neolog’), a conservative (Orthodox), and a middle wing (the ‘Statusquo’). The new version of Judaism, called Reform or Neolog, developed alongside emancipation during the 19th century. It rejected the aspects of traditional Judaism seen as incompatible with the modern political and cultural situation. It has quickly become the major affiliation of Jews in Hungary. Their temple was built in the Dohány Street in 1859. The central Statusquo got its temple in the Rumbach Street in 1872, its architect was the Viennese Otto Wagner. The Orthodox building was finished later, only in 1913, in the Kazinczy Street.
In 1873, the united Budapest (from three cities Buda, Pest and Óbuda) as capital was created. With the emancipation, Jews started to gain prominence in many areas of cultural endeavor. The number of Jews at universities and working in professional fields rose, they became successful businessmen. Factories, mines were created; banks and insurance companies were opened.
In 1873, a school was opened for boys. The Rabbinical Seminary and a secondary school (gymnasium) were established in 1877. A Jewish hospital and other welfare institutions were founded.
In 1895 the Hungarian parliament declared the Jewish religion equal with other religous denominations. In the same year they allowed civil marriage between Jews and Christians. Strong integration started, Jews started to consider themselves to be Hungarian. A significant intellectual and business class developed, which started to play an important role in the city’s economic life. This century have given some outstanding personalities; like Baumhorn Lipót (1860-1932), Lajta Béla (1873-1920), Theodor Herzl (1860-1904), Petschauer Attila (1904-1943) and the others.
WORLD WAR I. AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
In contrast to the impressiv economic development, political problems appeared. Besides the German – Magyar, Czech – Magyar conflicts about the future of the dual monarchy, ethnic problems escalated. The strong national feelings alienated the non-Hungarian population. As a reaction, the already significant Romanian, Serbian and Slovak nationalism further escalated. On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb shot and killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary demanded action by Serbia to punish the responsible. When they deemed that Serbia did not fulfill the expectations, they declared war. Hungary was fighting on the Austrian side. As the country was involved into the war, Jews were fighting together with the Hungarians. More than 10,000 Jews died and thousands were wounded and disabled fighting for their country.
In 1918, as a result of defeat, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed and Hungary was in ruins. The new government, with the liberal Count Mihály Károlyi as a leader, declared Hungary as an independent Republic. In 1919 they lost their support and the Communist Party of Hungary came to power, led by Béla Kun. The regime collapsed after a few months, and the reactionary forces under Miklós Horthy established a new government. Hungary lost a very big territory, economic problems grew and anti-Semitism appeared, probably this led to the series of pogroms, known as the White Terror in 1919.
In 1920, Hungary signed the so-called Trianon Treaty, with which the country lost over two-thirds of its territory (71%), and 13 million of its inhabitants. In 1920, Horthy appointed Count Pál Teleki as Prime Minister. The Terror ended in the country, but this right-wing government passed a number of anti-Jewish measures, the Numerus Clausus was proclaimed, which limited the number of Jewish students at universities. Due to the Numerus Clausus, Jewish students attended universities abroad and stayed on. With this step Hungary’s intellectual loss was even bigger, famous future worldwide-known scientist, artist, left the country. Just to mention some: Ede Teller, János Neumann, Marcell Breuer, and so on. Jews were marked as „political insecure elements”.
HUNGARY DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR
Between 1929 and 1933, during the economic depression worldwide, Hungary’s economy collapsed, resulting unemployment and the decrease of living standards. The government’s most important goal was revision. The government swung more and more to the right in those years, and the country established close relations with the Fascist Italy and the Nazi Germany. Since it didn’t want a military conflict, it tried to get the desired territories through diplomacy. With the first and the second Vienna Awards, Hungary got back certain territories. To appease their allies, the ‘Jewish question’ was back up to the level of politics. Hungary issued a couple of Anti-Jewish laws.
The first Anti-Jewish Law, in 1938, restricted the number of Jews in liberal professions, administration, and commerce to 20%. This was extended with the second Anti-Jewish Law issued in 1939; which limited the employment in professional fields for 6%. This was the first law which was based on race.
In 1940 Hungary signed the Tripartite Pact, which allied Germany, Italy, and Japan. In 1941 Hitler put pressure on Yugoslavia to join the Pact. This move was unpopular amongst the Serbian public and military, and they dethroned the Prince. Hitler decided to attack Yugoslavia and asked military help from Hungary for this invasion, and promised some taken territories in return. With this step Hungary joined the war alongside Germany.
Though it belonged to the Axis, the Hungarian government refused to allow the deportation of Hungarian Jews. The excluding measures were controlled, but the Jews lived a relatively more secure life in Hungary, than in other European countries. From countries occupied by the Germans thousands fled to Hungary. In 1941, the ones who couldn’t prove their Hungarian citizenship were rounded up by the National Office and exiled to Galicia and Ukraine. Most of the transfers were executed by the German Security Police at Kamianets-Podolskyi. In the same year the Hungarian troops made a mass massacre at Novi Sad. Bardossy passed the third Anti-Jewish Law in 1941, which brought the complete exclusion. It prohibited intermarriage, social and personal contact between Jews and non-Jews, and it eliminated the Jews from economic positions.
On June 22, 1941, Hitler started his Russian invasion. Hitler did not ask for Hungarian assistance, but when Kosice was bombed, the Hungarian government considered it as a Russian provocation. The Hungarian units joined Germany and suffered terrible losses. Since 1941, Jews were drafted to labor service in Hungary. This type of military based force labor was unique for the country. Thousands were killed this way in Russia (in the Don-band) and in Serbia (Bor-copper mines). But the government continually resisted German pressure and refused to start the deportation.
Meanwhile, the Hungarian government started negotiations with British and American forces. Fearing that Hungary might conclude a separate peace on March 19, 1944, German troops marched in and occupied Hungary. Adolf Eichmann and a special group with the Wehrmacht arrived to Budapest to oversee and prepare the Final Solution of the Jewish question. The decree to wear the yellow star was issued on April 5, soon after the ghettoization. Deportation started in the provinces. In less than 8 weeks, between May and July the German and the Hungarian authorities deported more than 430.000 Jews mostly to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where at the end, one third of the murdered victims were Hungarian.
When the ‘Auschwitz Report’ disclosed the situation in the death camps, international protest began. Due to the interventions and to the success of the D-Day Horthy ceased the deportation. Though they lived in a very difficult situation, the Budapest community was the only in the country to remain.
In September 1944, Soviet forces crossed the Hungarian border. In October Horthy announced that Hungary would capitulate. The Germans forced Horthy to abrogate his armistice and named Ferenc Szálasi (the leader of the Arrow Cross Party) as Prime Minister. Hungary continued the war as a committed ally of Germany. With Szálasi, the fate of Jews in capital turned tragic. Groups of Jews were forced to walk 200-220 km to Hegyeshalom border for „imperial work”. On December 10, the Budapest Ghetto was established, 70,000 people were gathered in 4,000 apartments. From time to time there were massacres at the Danube river, the terror started.
Among these inhuman conditions, the rescue efforts fulfilled extremely important tasks. In intention to save as many Jews as possible legal and illegal methods were used by some rescuers. The ones of overriding importance: Raul Wallenberg - the secretary of the Swedish embassy, Carl Lutz - Swiss consul, Giorgio Perlasca – an Italian, who posed as a Spanish agent, Angelo Rotta – Papal nuncio, Gábor Sztehlo – Lutheran priest and so on.
The Red Army completed the encirclement of Budapest on December 29, 1944, and the battle of Budapest started. The Ghetto was liberated on January 18, 1945. The siege of Budapest ended on February 13, 1945. The Soviet operations ended on April 4, 1945, when the last German troops were expelled.
Although thousands of Jews escaped the horrors of deportation, (just some 200,000 Jews managed to survive the Holocaust) 600,000 Hungarian Jews were killed. The one who managed to survive moved to the capital, or emigrated to Israel or to other countries (Canada, USA, Australia, etc).
COMMUNIST RULE
After the WWII, Hungary again lost all the territories that were gained between 1938 and 1941. The country was in ruins and rebuilding started rapidly. The multi-party system was over when the communist party, with Rákosi Mátyás took the power over, and a new one-party system was created. He imposed an authoritarian rule on Hungary. A new constitution was passed, which was modeled after the constitution of the Soviet Union. A new coat-of-arms was adopted with Communist symbols. The new government declared thousands as political enemies who were tortured, executed or imprisoned. Rákosi expanded the education system with communist ideology, and religious classes were eliminated. Per pure Communist doctrine, which was strictly atheistic.
On October 23, 1956, a peaceful student demonstration grew into the Hungarian Uprising. Thousands were killed, and 100,000 decided to emigrate amongst them some 20,000 Jews. With Soviet intervention the formal system was restored. The new government was created by János Kádár. A milder, so-called ‘goulash’ communist regime was carried out. The next two decades responded to pressures for minor political and economic reforms. In the 1980s it had achieved some economic reforms, limited political liberalization and encouraged more trade with the West. In 1988, the pressure for change was increasing, different parties were formed. The parliament adopted legislation providing multiparty parliamentary elections. The regime has changed in 1989, and the most important political act was that the new Hungarian Republic was proclaimed in Budapest on October 23, 1989. The first free parliamentary elections were held in May 1990.
TODAY
Since 1990, there were big political, economical and cultural changes in Hungary. With foreign and Hungarian invested capital renovations started and the communist clouds slowly fade away. In 2004 Hungary became member of the EU too and the country has become more democratic than ever before.
WWII and the years after it were characterized with silence. The attendance in religious institutions was very small. In many cases, Jewish children didn’t learn of their Jewish affiliation, survivors haven’t talked openly about the psychological sufferings they had experienced. Since 1989, all these have changed rapidly. Over the past decades several new institutions were established. Religious, educational, cultural and social changes occurred, that enriched the Jewish life in Budapest and in the provinces too.
Most of the estimates about the number of Jews in Hungary range from 80,000 to 100,000, with very high intermarriage rates. Though Hungary has the biggest Jewish community in Eastern Europe we can’t say that everybody lives a religious life, some even do not attend the synagogues even on the High Holidays. The new institutions have added potential for educating Jews and directing them back toward Jewish traditions. A kind of renewal, renaissance started in the 7th district, in the old-new Jewish neighborhood.
‘Jewishness’ in Hungary has many different aspects. The mainstream Judaism in the country is the ‘Neolog’ one. This wing was able to reorganize its structure and istitutions. The Neolog’s center is the newly renovated Dohány Street Synagogue.
A few dozen families belong to the Orthodox community. Before WWII, this wing was dominant in the provinces, but these communities were mostly deported and killed. Now the community has much less members, their center is the Kazinczy Street Synagogue.
Over the past decades a new orthodox wing was created, by the Chabad Lubavitch movement. They have a fruitful, dynamic and visible presence in the capital.
The Rumbach Synagogue was built for the middle wing, for the ‘Status Quo Ante’-type. This building is still not renovated, so the small community prays in other buildings.
Like in other countries Budapest has a reform movement too, the group has a woman rabbi (Kata Kelemen) and some 30-40 members.
Budapest has more than 20 synagogues or prayer rooms in use in Budapest, and app. about the same number in the province. There are some buildings which managed to survive WWII, but were not renovated or are used for something else.
The Rabbinical Seminary, which was opened in 1877 still functions and is the only one in Eastern and Central Europe of its type. Zionist organizations were created; three Jewish secondary and high schools are in function. In 1992 a Jewish College ‘Pedagogium’ was established. There are kosher shops, wig stores, kosher restaurants, butchers, hospitals, cultural centers.
Unfortunately, Anti-Semitism as well as racism towards the Roma population has been a problem in Hungary in the recent years. Luckily, violence against individuals are rare, this hatred is usually exhibited by destroying tombstones or vandalizing some community buildings.